The race to dominate low Earth orbit (LEO) has never been more intense. From government-led programs like the International Space Station (ISS) and China’s Tiangong to private ventures aiming to build their own space habitats, the development of space stations is reaching new heights. As technology advances and commercial opportunities expand, understanding how these space stations operate, their latest developments, and future projections is crucial.
1. The International Space Station (ISS) has been continuously occupied since November 2000
The ISS represents one of the longest-running international collaborations in human history.
For more than two decades, astronauts from around the world have lived and worked in microgravity, conducting critical research that benefits life both on Earth and in space.
The continuous occupation of the ISS is no small feat. Keeping a space station operational for this long requires a steady stream of supplies, consistent maintenance, and the ability to troubleshoot unexpected problems in a harsh environment.
Over the years, numerous space agencies, including NASA, Roscosmos, ESA, JAXA, and CSA, have worked together to ensure the ISS remains habitable.
For businesses and entrepreneurs, the ISS presents valuable lessons in maintaining long-term projects in challenging conditions. The importance of international partnerships, ongoing investment, and proactive problem-solving cannot be overstated.
As more private space stations emerge, ensuring long-term sustainability will be a key challenge, just as it has been for the ISS.
2. The ISS orbits Earth at an altitude of approximately 420 km (260 miles)
Orbiting at this altitude allows the ISS to stay within Earth’s gravitational influence while also experiencing microgravity conditions essential for scientific research.
This specific height was chosen because it balances the need to minimize atmospheric drag while avoiding high-radiation zones such as the Van Allen belts.
For future space stations, understanding orbital dynamics will be crucial.
Private companies aiming to build their own space habitats must decide whether to place their stations at similar altitudes or explore other orbits, such as higher-altitude locations for long-term sustainability or lower altitudes for easier access.
Commercial ventures should also consider factors like fuel consumption for station-keeping, debris mitigation strategies, and the potential risks of space weather.
Since atmospheric drag still affects the ISS at 420 km, periodic reboosts using visiting spacecraft are necessary. Companies like SpaceX and Northrop Grumman provide these reboosts, showing how private firms can contribute to sustaining space habitats.
3. The ISS completes one orbit around Earth approximately every 90 minutes
Traveling at roughly 28,000 km/h (17,500 mph), the ISS experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets every day. This fast orbital period means that research conducted on the ISS benefits from near-continuous exposure to different environmental conditions.
For businesses and research institutions planning to use space stations for experiments, this rapid orbit provides unique advantages.
It allows for quick collection of data across multiple conditions, making it easier to study changes over short periods. This is particularly useful for fields like climate science, materials testing, and medical research.
Private space stations will need to consider their orbital speeds and adjust their schedules accordingly.
While some research benefits from rapid orbits, other activities, such as long-term human habitation, might require different orbital periods to optimize exposure to sunlight and reduce the mental strain on crew members caused by frequent day-night cycles.
4. The ISS weighs around 420,000 kg (925,000 lbs), equivalent to about 320 cars
Building a structure of this magnitude in space required decades of planning and coordination. Each module was launched separately and assembled in orbit, showcasing the possibilities of in-space construction.
Private space stations may not need to be as massive as the ISS, but the weight of any station impacts everything from launch costs to maintenance requirements. Advances in lightweight materials and in-space manufacturing will help reduce costs and enable more ambitious projects.
For companies planning to build space habitats, lessons from the ISS suggest that modular construction will likely be the most viable approach. Sending up multiple smaller sections and connecting them in orbit allows for flexibility in design and the ability to expand over time as demand grows.
5. Over 270 astronauts from 20+ countries have visited the ISS
The ISS has served as a hub for international cooperation, with astronauts from NASA, Roscosmos, ESA, JAXA, and CSA, among others, spending time aboard the station. This global participation underscores the importance of collaboration in space.
As private space stations develop, companies should consider making their habitats accessible to multiple nations. This would encourage investment from different governments and create a larger market for space tourism, research, and manufacturing.
Additionally, astronaut training programs will become increasingly important as more private individuals look to travel to space. Companies offering space tourism or commercial astronaut services will need to develop rigorous training regimes to ensure safety and mission success.
6. The ISS has a total habitable volume of about 388 cubic meters (13,696 cubic feet)
The habitable volume of the ISS is roughly equivalent to a five-bedroom house. This space includes research labs, sleeping quarters, dining areas, and exercise facilities.
For private space station developers, designing a comfortable and efficient living space will be crucial. The ISS has shown that astronauts require well-planned interiors that balance work and relaxation.
Future space stations must consider factors such as personal space, psychological well-being, and adaptability for different missions.
New technologies like expandable habitats, similar to Bigelow Aerospace’s prototypes, may help increase habitable volume without significantly increasing launch mass. Designing space stations with modular and reconfigurable interiors will also make them more adaptable to different needs.
7. The ISS costs around $150 billion in total to build and maintain
The massive cost of the ISS demonstrates the financial challenges of maintaining a long-term space presence. While this investment has paid off in terms of scientific discoveries and technological advancements, future space stations will need to be more cost-effective.
Private companies aim to reduce costs through reusable rockets, in-space manufacturing, and partnerships with commercial clients.
To make space stations financially viable, businesses must develop sustainable revenue streams, such as microgravity research, space tourism, and in-space manufacturing.
Governments may also provide financial incentives to encourage private companies to take over LEO operations after the ISS is retired. Understanding how to secure funding, attract investors, and manage operational expenses will be critical for the success of private space stations.
8. The United States contributes about $3 billion annually to ISS operations
Maintaining the International Space Station is a costly endeavor. The United States, through NASA, spends approximately $3 billion each year to keep the station running. This funding covers astronaut training, cargo resupply missions, scientific research, and maintenance operations.
For private space stations, the key challenge will be sustainability without relying on government funding. Companies must develop independent revenue streams to justify their costs.
Possible income sources include renting research space to pharmaceutical or tech companies, hosting private astronauts, and offering manufacturing facilities for unique space-based production.
Space tourism is another potential avenue, with companies like Axiom Space already selling private missions to the ISS. The key lesson from NASA’s funding model is that maintaining a space station is an ongoing expense, not just an initial investment.
Private companies must account for the long-term costs of station upkeep, including regular hardware upgrades, station reboosts, and crewed operations.
9. The ISS is expected to remain operational until at least 2030
NASA and its partners have agreed to extend the ISS program until at least 2030. This extension allows for continued scientific research and provides a transition period for private space stations to develop.
For companies aiming to build space habitats, this timeline is crucial. The ISS has served as a testing ground for commercial activities in microgravity, including biotech experiments, advanced materials research, and in-space manufacturing.
Entrepreneurs should use the next few years to refine business models, secure partnerships, and develop technologies that will thrive in post-ISS LEO.
Additionally, space agencies may be willing to support private stations with funding, contracts, or logistics support.
NASA, for example, has already invested in commercial LEO destinations to ensure a smooth transition from government-led to private-sector operations. Understanding this shift will be key for businesses looking to enter the space station market.
10. China’s Tiangong space station’s core module, Tianhe, was launched in April 2021
China’s space ambitions have grown significantly over the past decade. The launch of the Tianhe core module marked the beginning of the Tiangong space station’s assembly, positioning China as a key player in the orbital infrastructure race.
For businesses and international space agencies, Tiangong’s development presents opportunities and challenges.
China plans to use its space station for a variety of scientific and commercial activities, including international collaborations. However, political and regulatory factors may limit Western participation.
Entrepreneurs should monitor how China’s space station develops and consider potential business opportunities within China’s space economy.
Whether through partnerships with Chinese firms or indirect involvement in supply chains, there are ways for businesses to benefit from Tiangong’s expansion.
11. Tiangong was completed in 2022 with the addition of Wentian and Mengtian modules
Unlike the ISS, which required multiple countries to contribute different modules, China independently built and launched its space station in just a few years. The addition of the Wentian and Mengtian science modules significantly expanded Tiangong’s research capabilities.
For private companies, this rapid development offers an important lesson in efficiency. The modular approach allows for gradual expansion and future upgrades without the need for complete redesigns.
Private space station developers should adopt similar strategies, starting with a core module and adding new sections as demand grows.
Additionally, China’s ability to develop and launch its space station quickly suggests that commercial firms must be agile and innovative to stay competitive. Streamlining supply chains, reducing costs, and improving launch efficiency will be crucial for private players entering the market.
12. Tiangong orbits Earth at an altitude of about 340-450 km
China’s space station operates within a similar altitude range as the ISS. This means it faces similar challenges, such as atmospheric drag and the need for periodic reboosts.
For future space station developers, choosing an orbit is a strategic decision. Lower orbits, like those used by Tiangong and the ISS, are easier to reach and resupply but require more frequent maintenance. Higher orbits reduce the need for reboosts but make transportation and logistics more expensive.
Companies planning private space habitats should carefully evaluate their orbital altitude based on their specific needs. If frequent cargo deliveries are required, a lower orbit may be preferable. If long-term stability is the priority, a higher altitude may be more suitable.
13. Tiangong has a total mass of about 66 tons
Compared to the ISS, which weighs over 400 tons, Tiangong is a relatively small space station. However, its compact design makes it efficient and easier to maintain.
For private space stations, reducing mass is crucial to lowering launch costs. Advances in lightweight materials, inflatable habitats, and in-space manufacturing could help reduce station mass while maintaining functionality.
Smaller, more focused space stations could also be a viable business model. Instead of trying to replicate the ISS’s multi-purpose design, private companies might find success in specialized stations dedicated to research, tourism, or manufacturing.
14. Tiangong can support three astronauts for long-duration missions, expanding to six during crew rotations
The ability to sustain a permanent human presence is one of the most important aspects of any space station. Tiangong is designed to house three astronauts for extended periods, with the capacity to support six for short durations.
For private space stations, crew capacity will determine operational capabilities. While larger crews allow for more research and commercial activities, they also increase resource consumption, requiring more food, water, and oxygen.
Companies must find the right balance between crew size and sustainability. If stations focus on automation, they may require fewer human occupants. However, if they plan to host tourists or conduct hands-on research, a larger human presence may be necessary.
15. China plans to keep Tiangong operational for at least 10-15 years
China’s commitment to maintaining Tiangong for over a decade indicates a long-term strategy for space development. The station is expected to serve as a stepping stone for future Chinese missions, including potential lunar and deep-space projects.
Private space stations should take a similar long-term approach. Short-term missions may be profitable in the beginning, but sustainability requires consistent funding, reliable technology, and a clear growth plan.
Companies should focus on building durable infrastructure and securing partnerships that will ensure financial stability over time.
Additionally, space station developers must plan for eventual replacements or upgrades. Just as the ISS will be deorbited in the 2030s, today’s private stations will one day need to be replaced.
Designing infrastructure that allows for future expansion or modular replacements will ensure longevity in space.
16. Tiangong has hosted multiple Shenzhou crewed missions since its launch
Since its construction, China’s Tiangong space station has welcomed numerous astronauts via the Shenzhou spacecraft. Each mission has focused on testing new technologies, conducting scientific research, and demonstrating long-term human spaceflight capabilities.
For private space station developers, a reliable crew transport system is essential. Just as China relies on Shenzhou and NASA depends on SpaceX’s Crew Dragon and Boeing’s Starliner for ISS operations, private companies must establish dependable transportation services.
Partnerships with space transportation providers like SpaceX, Blue Origin, or emerging competitors will be crucial for private space station success.
Companies planning to launch their own habitats should secure access to multiple spacecraft options to ensure redundancy and reliability in case of delays or failures.
17. The Tiangong station uses the Tianzhou cargo spacecraft for resupply missions
China’s use of Tianzhou cargo vehicles ensures the Tiangong space station remains stocked with food, water, fuel, and scientific equipment. Regular resupply missions are a necessity for long-term human habitation in space.
Private space stations will need similar logistics support. Just as the ISS depends on Cygnus, Dragon, and Progress spacecraft for resupply, future commercial stations must arrange steady supply chains.
Investing in reusable cargo vehicles or forming partnerships with providers like SpaceX and Sierra Space (Dream Chaser) will be essential.
Businesses looking to enter this industry should explore how they can contribute to space logistics. Whether it’s developing automated resupply solutions, refining cargo storage methods, or creating fuel depots, there are numerous ways to innovate in space supply chain management.
18. The first private space station modules are expected to launch by 2027
Multiple companies, including Axiom Space and Blue Origin, are developing private space stations, with initial modules expected to launch within the next few years.
Entrepreneurs and investors should pay close attention to these developments. The transition from government-funded to commercial space stations represents a major shift in the industry, opening up new business opportunities.
Potential revenue sources include leasing lab space for microgravity research, hosting space tourists, or manufacturing high-value materials in space.
Businesses should also consider the regulatory landscape. The transition to private space habitats will require updated policies on safety, liability, and commercial operations in orbit.
Entrepreneurs must stay ahead of these regulations to ensure compliance and position themselves for success in the growing commercial space sector.
19. Axiom Space plans to attach its first module to the ISS in 2026 before transitioning to an independent station
Axiom Space is taking a gradual approach by first attaching modules to the ISS before moving to a fully independent station.
This strategy minimizes risk and allows for testing in a controlled environment before full-scale deployment.
For startups and investors, this approach demonstrates the value of phased implementation. Instead of launching an entirely new space station from scratch, companies can introduce smaller components, test their viability, and scale up over time.
This method also creates opportunities for collaboration. Companies that lack the resources to launch a full station can develop individual modules and integrate them with existing infrastructure.
This modular approach lowers costs and reduces technical risks while still allowing businesses to participate in the space economy.
20. Blue Origin’s Orbital Reef is projected to be operational by the early 2030s
Orbital Reef, a private space station backed by Blue Origin and Sierra Space, aims to be a multi-use business park in space. Its projected launch timeline aligns with the ISS’s planned retirement, positioning it as a potential successor.
Businesses should watch this development closely. Orbital Reef is designed to accommodate various industries, including research, tourism, and in-space manufacturing.
Entrepreneurs looking to enter the space market should evaluate potential partnerships or investment opportunities within this ecosystem.
For those outside the aerospace sector, this station represents an entry point into the space economy.
Companies in biotech, pharmaceuticals, and advanced materials research could benefit from microgravity conditions without needing to build their own infrastructure.
Strategic collaboration with space station operators will be key to unlocking new commercial opportunities.
21. Orbital Reef is designed to accommodate up to 10 people at a time
The ability to host a larger crew means Orbital Reef can support more diverse operations, from long-term research to space tourism.
For private space station developers, crew capacity is a crucial consideration. A higher number of occupants increases operational complexity but also expands revenue opportunities.
Stations that can host more people may be more attractive to researchers, government agencies, and private customers.
However, increasing crew size also demands better life support systems, food production capabilities, and space for living quarters. Companies must balance crew capacity with sustainability and operational costs.
Modular expansion, as seen with the ISS and Tiangong, may be the best approach to scaling space habitats over time.
22. Northrop Grumman has proposed a free-flying space station for research and commercial use
Northrop Grumman, a key ISS contractor, is leveraging its experience to develop an independent space station. The proposal focuses on providing a dedicated research platform for government and commercial clients.
This move highlights the growing demand for specialized space stations. Instead of building general-purpose habitats like the ISS, private companies can create targeted solutions for industries like pharmaceuticals, semiconductor manufacturing, and AI development.
Entrepreneurs should explore niche opportunities within this market. Companies that provide essential space station services, such as radiation shielding, advanced robotics, or automated manufacturing, will have significant growth potential.
23. Voyager Space and Lockheed Martin are collaborating on the Starlab space station
Starlab is another planned commercial space station, emphasizing research and commercial applications. Its partnership with Lockheed Martin provides strong technical expertise and financial backing.
This collaboration model is important for emerging space businesses. Rather than trying to develop space infrastructure independently, smaller companies can partner with established aerospace firms to share resources, expertise, and funding.
For entrepreneurs, forming strategic partnerships will be crucial to entering the space industry. Whether through joint ventures, subcontracting, or technology licensing, collaboration reduces risk and accelerates development.
24. Starlab is designed to be continuously crewed by four astronauts
Maintaining a permanent human presence in space requires robust life support, food supply, and reliable transportation. Starlab’s plan for continuous occupancy underscores the need for long-term sustainability.
Companies looking to support space station operations should focus on life support innovations, waste recycling, and energy-efficient power systems. As more habitats emerge, demand for these technologies will grow, creating opportunities for suppliers and service providers.
Businesses should also consider astronaut training and wellness solutions. As commercial spaceflight expands, preparing individuals for long-duration missions will become a growing industry, requiring expertise in both physical and mental health support.
25. The ISS will be deorbited in the early 2030s, with NASA planning a controlled reentry
The planned retirement of the ISS marks a major shift in space operations. This transition creates opportunities for private space stations to take over LEO activities.
Businesses should prepare for this change by developing products and services tailored for commercial space habitats. The end of the ISS does not mean the end of human presence in orbit—rather, it signals a shift to a more commercial model.
Entrepreneurs who anticipate these needs and develop solutions now will be well-positioned for success in the next decade.
26. NASA’s Commercial LEO Destinations program has awarded over $400 million to private space station projects
NASA’s Commercial Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Destinations program is not just an initiative; it’s a strategic shift toward privatizing human presence in space.
With over $400 million already awarded to private space station projects, NASA is actively encouraging commercial ventures to take over where the International Space Station (ISS) will leave off.
For businesses, this is more than a government contract—it’s an open door to an entire industry that will define the next frontier of human civilization. The companies that seize this opportunity today will be the ones shaping the future of space research, tourism, and industrial manufacturing in orbit.
27. SpaceX’s Starship is expected to play a role in deploying future private space stations
SpaceX’s Starship is not just another rocket—it is a fundamental shift in how we think about space travel, construction, and commerce.
Designed to be fully reusable with the highest payload capacity of any spacecraft ever built, Starship has the potential to redefine how private space stations are deployed, supplied, and expanded.
For businesses looking to enter the space industry, understanding how Starship changes the economics of space operations is critical. Whether you’re in manufacturing, research, logistics, or infrastructure development, Starship’s capabilities open new doors that simply did not exist before.
28. The global space economy is projected to reach $1 trillion by 2040, with space stations playing a key role
The space industry is growing at an unprecedented rate, with experts predicting that its total value will exceed $1 trillion by 2040. Space stations, both government-funded and private, will play a critical role in this expansion by enabling new industries and economic activities in low Earth orbit (LEO).
This rapid growth presents immense opportunities for entrepreneurs, investors, and businesses across various sectors. Space stations will serve as hubs for scientific research, pharmaceutical development, advanced manufacturing, and even entertainment.
As the cost of space access decreases due to reusable rockets and new transportation technologies, more companies will be able to afford operations in orbit.
For businesses, the best strategy is to identify potential applications for microgravity research and production. Pharmaceuticals developed in space have already shown promising results, with companies exploring the benefits of growing protein crystals in microgravity to develop better drugs.
Similarly, fiber optics manufactured in orbit could outperform those made on Earth due to the absence of gravitational imperfections.
Investors should look for emerging companies that specialize in space station services, ranging from in-orbit construction and maintenance to space-based agriculture and tourism.
As commercial space stations become operational, these industries will thrive, creating a wealth of opportunities for forward-thinking businesses.
29. China plans to expand Tiangong with additional modules or a second station in the 2030s
China has ambitious plans for its space program, and the Tiangong station is just the beginning. The Chinese government has hinted at adding new modules to expand the station’s capabilities or even launching an entirely new station within the next decade.
For businesses and international agencies, this expansion means new opportunities and challenges. China’s growing presence in space will likely lead to more research collaborations and technological advancements.
However, companies outside China must navigate geopolitical considerations when engaging with China’s space industry.
Entrepreneurs should keep an eye on how China structures its partnerships and commercial opportunities. While the U.S. prohibits NASA from directly working with China through the Wolf Amendment, private companies in other countries may find opportunities to collaborate.
China’s willingness to accept international experiments and payloads aboard Tiangong suggests that businesses offering specialized space services could find a market there.
Additionally, China’s expansion plans highlight the importance of scalability in space station design. The ability to add new modules and upgrade existing facilities ensures that space stations remain useful for decades, rather than becoming obsolete.
Companies developing private space stations should adopt this mindset, designing their structures with future expansion in mind.
30. Private space stations aim to replace ISS as the primary research platform in low Earth orbit by the mid-2030s
As the ISS nears retirement, private space stations are stepping up to take its place. By the mid-2030s, commercial space labs are expected to become the dominant research and business platforms in low Earth orbit.
This transition will bring a shift from government-funded operations to commercial business models. Space research will no longer be limited to national agencies—private companies, universities, and even individuals will have more access to conducting experiments and business ventures in orbit.
Businesses must prepare for this shift by adapting their research and development strategies to leverage the unique advantages of microgravity.
The ISS has already provided valuable insights into fields such as medicine, agriculture, and materials science, but commercial space stations will offer even greater flexibility for innovation.
Investors should focus on companies that are building essential infrastructure for these private stations, such as life-support systems, modular construction technologies, and in-orbit servicing capabilities.
As competition increases, businesses that provide cost-effective solutions for maintaining and operating space stations will have a significant advantage.
The future of space is not just for astronauts or government agencies—it is becoming a fully commercial landscape where anyone with vision and investment can take part. Now is the time to position yourself in this rapidly growing industry and take advantage of the massive opportunities ahead.
wrapping it up
The rise of private space stations, backed by game-changing technologies like SpaceX’s Starship, marks the beginning of a new era.
We are moving from government-controlled space missions to a fully commercialized low Earth orbit, where businesses, investors, and entrepreneurs will drive innovation, research, and industry in ways never before possible.
